Antipope in the context of "Council of Florence"

The Avignon Papacy (Occitan: Papat d'Avinhon; French: Papauté d'Avignon) was the period from 1309 to 1376 during which seven successive popes resided in Avignon (at the time within the Kingdom of Arles, part of the Holy Roman Empire, now part of France) rather than in Rome. The situation arose from the conflict between the papacy and the French crown, culminating in the death of Pope Boniface VIII after his arrest and maltreatment by agents of Philip IV of France. Following the subsequent death of Pope Benedict XI, Philip pressured a deadlocked conclave to elect the Archbishop of Bordeaux as pope Clement V in 1305. Clement refused to move to Rome, and in 1309 he moved his court to the papal enclave at Avignon, where it remained for the next 67 years. This absence from Rome is sometimes referred to as the "Babylonian captivity" of the Papacy (cf. Italian cattività avignonese, i.e. "Avignonese captivity").

A total of seven popes reigned at Avignon, all French, and all under the influence of the French Crown. In 1376, Gregory XI abandoned Avignon and moved his court to Rome, arriving in January 1377. After Gregory's death in 1378, deteriorating relations between his successor Urban VI and a faction of cardinals gave rise to the Western Schism. This started a second line of Avignon popes, subsequently regarded as illegitimate. The last Avignon antipope, Benedict XIII, lost most of his support in 1398, including that of France. After five years besieged by the French, he fled to Perpignan in 1403. The schism ended in 1417 at the Council of Constance.

Saeculum obscurum (Ecclesiastical Latin: [ˈsɛː.ku.lu.m obsˈkuː.rum], "the dark age/century"), also known as the Rule of the Harlots or the Pornocracy, was a period in the history of the papacy during the first two thirds of the 10th century, following the chaos after the death of Pope Formosus in 896, and the seven legitimate popes and one illegitimate antipope elected between 896 and 904. It began with the installation of Pope Sergius III in 904 and lasted for 60 years until the death of Pope John XII in 964. During this period, the popes were influenced strongly by a powerful and allegedly corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives and allies. The era is seen as one of the lowest points of the history of the papal office.

The Renaissance Papacy was a period of papal history between the Western Schism and the Reformation. From the election of Pope Martin V of the Council of Constance in 1417 to the Reformation in the 16th century, Western Christianity was largely free from schism as well as significant disputed papal claimants. There were many important divisions over the direction of the religion, but these were resolved through the then-settled procedures of the papal conclave.

The popes of this period were a reflection of the College of Cardinals that elected them. The College was dominated by cardinal-nephews (relatives of the popes that elevated them), crown-cardinals (representatives of the Catholic monarchies of Europe), and members of the powerful Italian families. There were two popes each from the House of Borgia, House of della Rovere, and House of Medici during this period. The wealthy popes and cardinals increasingly patronized Renaissance art and architecture, (re)building the landmarks of Rome from the ground up.

Various early Christian writers wrote gospels and other books, some of which were canonized as the New Testament canon developed. The Apostolic Fathers were prominent writers who are traditionally understood to have met and learned from Jesus's personal disciples. The Church Fathers are later writers with no direct connection to the disciples (other than the claim to apostolic succession). Early Christian apologists tried to defend Christianity against its critics, especially the Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers. Dates given, if not otherwise specified, are of their writings or bishopric, not of their lives.

• Paul of Tarsus, "Apostle to the Gentiles", earliest New Testament author 45~65
• Four Evangelists, traditionally identified as the authors of the canonical gospels 60~125
• Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, apostolic father 68~107
• Marcion of Sinope, evangelist and theologian, founder of Marcionism, published the first known canon of the New Testament, 85~160
• Clement of Rome, bishop of Rome, apostolic father 88~101
• Papias, bishop of Hierapolis, apostolic father 110~130
• Polycarp of Smyrna, bishop of Smyrna, apostolic father 110~160
• Aristides of Athens, apologist ~120
• Justin Martyr, church father ~165
• Melito of Sardis, bishop of Sardis, ~180
• Irenaeus, bishop of Lyon, disciple of Polycarp, apologist 180~202
• Origen of Alexandria, 185~254, Neoplatonist, controversial during his lifetime, posthumously condemned at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553
• Tatian, pupil of Justin Martyr, ascetic theologian ~185
• Athenagoras of Athens, philosopher, apologist ~190
• Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, excommunicated by Victor I of Rome over the Easter controversy ~196
• Montanus, self-proclaimed prophet and founder of Montanism, last quarter of 2nd century CE
• Tertullian, church father, apologist, first Christian writer in Latin, later a Montanist 197~230
• Hippolytus, church father, sometimes termed the first Antipope, reconciled with the church and died a martyr 217~236
• Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, martyr 218~258
• Clement of Alexandria, church father, Bishop of Alexandria ~220
• Novatian, a rigorist and Antipope in 251
• Dionysius, patriarch of Alexandria, pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church 248~264
• Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, adoptionist, condemned at 269 Council of Antioch
• Athanasius of Alexandria, c. 297~373, patriarch of Alexandria, defender of the Trinitarian doctrine
• Donatus Magnus, bishop of Carthage, (+355), leader of the Donatists from 313
• Lactantius, apologist ~317
• Arnobius, apologist ~330
• Eusebius, wrote History of the Church ~325
• Augustine of Hippo, 354-430, Latin church father, wrote Confessions and City of God

This chronological list of the popes of the Catholic Church corresponds to that given in the Annuario Pontificio under the heading "I Sommi Pontefici Romani" (The Roman Supreme Pontiffs), excluding those that are explicitly indicated as antipopes. Published every year by the Roman Curia, the Annuario Pontificio no longer identifies popes by regnal number, stating that it is impossible to decide which pope represented the legitimate succession at various times. The 2001 edition of the Annuario Pontificio introduced "almost 200 corrections to its existing biographies of the popes, from St Peter to John Paul II". The corrections concerned dates, especially in the first two centuries, birthplaces and the family name of one pope.

The term pope (Latin: papa, lit. 'father') is used in several churches to denote their high spiritual leaders (for example Coptic pope). This title is usually used in English to refer to the head of the Catholic Church. The Catholic pope uses various titles by tradition, including Summus Pontifex, Pontifex Maximus, and Servus servorum Dei. Each title has been added by unique historical events, and unlike other papal prerogatives, is not incapable of modification.

Peter of Candia, also known as Peter Phillarges (Greek: Πέτρος Φιλάργης) (c. 1339 – 3 May 1410), denominated Alexander V (Latin: Alexander PP.V; Italian: Alessandro V), was an antipope elected by the Council of Pisa during the Western Schism (1378–1417). He invalidly reigned briefly from 26 June 1409 to his death in 1410, in opposition to the true Roman Pope Gregory XII and the Avignon antipope Benedict XIII. In the 20th century, the Catholic Church reinterpreted the Western Schism by recognising the Roman Popes of the period as legitimate. The pontificate of Gregory XII was thus recognized to extend to 1415, and Alexander V was and is now recognized as an antipope.

Pope Gregory XI (Latin: Gregorius XI; born Pierre Roger de Beaufort; c. 1329 – 27 March 1378) was head of the Catholic Church from 30 December 1370 to his death, in March 1378. He was the seventh and last Avignon pope and the most recent French pope. In 1377, Gregory XI returned the papal court to Rome, ending nearly 70 years of papal residency in Avignon, in modern-day France. His death was swiftly followed by the Western Schism involving two Avignon-based antipopes.