Photosphere in the context of "5 Vulpeculae"

The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light and infrared radiation with 10% at ultraviolet energies. It is the main source of energy for life on Earth. The Sun has been an object of veneration in many cultures and a central subject for astronomical research since antiquity.

The Sun orbits the Galactic Center at a distance of 24,000 to 28,000 light-years. Its mean distance from Earth is about 1.496×10 kilometres or about 8 light-minutes. The distance between the Sun and the Earth was used to define a unit of length called the astronomical unit, now defined to be 149.5978707×10 kilometres. Its diameter is about 1,391,400 km (864,600 mi), 109 times that of Earth. The Sun's mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, making up about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. The mass of the Sun's surface layer, its photosphere, consists mostly of hydrogen (~73%) and helium (~25%), with much smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron.

The Solar System consists of the Sun and the bodies that orbit it (most prominently Earth), being a system of masses bound together by gravity. The name comes from Sōl, the Latin name for the Sun. It formed about 4.6 billion years ago when a dense region of a molecular cloud collapsed, creating the Sun and a protoplanetary disc from which the orbiting bodies assembled. The fusion of hydrogen into helium inside the Sun's core releases energy, which is primarily emitted through its outer photosphere. This creates a decreasing temperature gradient across the system. Over 99.86% of the Solar System's mass is located within the Sun.

The most massive objects that orbit the Sun are the eight planets. Closest to the Sun in order of increasing distance are the four terrestrial planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These are the planets of the inner Solar System. Earth and Mars are the only planets in the Solar System which orbit within the Sun's habitable zone, where liquid water can exist on the surface. Beyond the frost line at about five astronomical units (AU), are two gas giants – Jupiter and Saturn – and two ice giants – Uranus and Neptune. These are the planets of the outer Solar System. Jupiter and Saturn possess nearly 90% of the non-stellar mass of the Solar System.

A solar radius is a unit of distance, commonly understood as 695,700 km and expressed as ${\displaystyle R_{\odot }}$, used mostly to express the size of an astronomical objects relative to that of the Sun, or their distance from it. This length is also called the nominal solar radius. The sun's actual radius, from which the unit of measurement is derived, is usually calculated as the radius from the sun's center out to the layer in the Sun's photosphere where the optical depth equals 2/3. One solar radius can be described as follows:$${\displaystyle 1\,R_{\odot }=6.957\times 10^{8}{\hbox{ m}}}$$This is an approximation: both because such distance is difficult to measure and can be measured in various ways, and because the sun is not a perfectly spherical object itself, and thus the actual radius varies depending on the point(s) measured and modality of measurement employed.

695,700 kilometres (432,300 miles) is approximately 10 times the average radius of Jupiter; 109 times the 6378 km radius of the Earth at its equator; and ${\textstyle {1 \over 215}}$ or 0.0047 of an astronomical unit, the approximate average distance between Earth and the Sun. The solar radius to the sun's poles and that to the equator differ slightly due to the Sun's rotation, which induces an oblateness in the order of 10 parts per million.

In astronomy, a corona (pl.: coronas or coronae) is the outermost layer of a star's atmosphere. It is a hot but relatively dim region of plasma populated by intermittent coronal structures such as prominences, coronal loops, and helmet streamers.

The Sun's corona lies above the chromosphere and extends millions of kilometres into outer space. Coronal light is typically obscured by diffuse sky radiation and glare from the solar disk, but can be easily seen by the naked eye during a total solar eclipse or with a specialized coronagraph. Spectroscopic measurements indicate strong ionization in the corona and a plasma temperature in excess of 1000000 kelvins, much hotter than the surface of the Sun, known as the photosphere.

In astronomy, stellar classification is the classification of stars based on their spectral characteristics. Electromagnetic radiation from the star is analyzed by splitting it with a prism or diffraction grating into a spectrum exhibiting the rainbow of colors interspersed with spectral lines. Each line indicates a particular chemical element or molecule, with the line strength indicating the abundance of that element. The strengths of the different spectral lines vary mainly due to the temperature of the photosphere, although in some cases there are true abundance differences. The spectral class of a star is a short code primarily summarizing the ionization state, giving an objective measure of the photosphere's temperature.

Most stars are currently classified under the Morgan–Keenan (MK) system using the letters O, B, A, F, G, K, and M, a sequence from the hottest (O type) to the coolest (M type). Each letter class is then subdivided using a numeric digit with 0 being hottest and 9 being coolest (e.g., A8, A9, F0, and F1 form a sequence from hotter to cooler). The sequence has been expanded with three classes for other stars that do not fit in the classical system: W, S and C. Some stellar remnants or objects of deviating mass have also been assigned letters: D for white dwarfs and L, T and Y for brown dwarfs (and exoplanets).

A chromosphere ("sphere of color", from the Ancient Greek words χρῶμα (khrôma) 'color' and σφαῖρα (sphaîra) 'sphere') is the second layer of a star's atmosphere, located above the photosphere and below the solar transition region and corona. The term usually refers to the Sun's chromosphere, but not exclusively, since it also refers to the corresponding layer of a stellar atmosphere. The name was suggested by the English astronomer Norman Lockyer after conducting systematic solar observations in order to distinguish the layer from the white-light emitting photosphere.

In the Sun's atmosphere, the chromosphere is roughly 3,000 to 5,000 kilometers (1,900 to 3,100 miles) in height, or slightly more than 1% of the Sun's radius at maximum thickness. It possesses a homogeneous layer at the boundary with the photosphere. Narrow jets of plasma, called spicules, rise from this homogeneous region and through the chromosphere, extending up to 10,000 km (6,200 mi) into the corona above.

A stellar magnetic field is a magnetic field generated by the motion of conductive plasma inside a star. This motion is created through convection, which is a form of energy transport involving the physical movement of material. A localized magnetic field exerts a force on the plasma, effectively increasing the pressure without a comparable gain in density. As a result, the magnetized region rises relative to the remainder of the plasma, until it reaches the star's photosphere. This creates starspots on the surface, and the related phenomenon of coronal loops.

In solar physics, a prominence, sometimes referred to as a filament, is a large plasma and magnetic field structure extending outward from the Sun's surface, often in a loop shape. Prominences are anchored to the Sun's surface in the much brighter photosphere, and extend outwards into the solar corona. While the corona consists of extremely hot plasma, prominences contain much cooler plasma, similar in composition to that of the chromosphere. Like the corona, solar prominences are only visible to the naked eye during a total solar eclipse.

Prominences form over timescales of about a day and may persist in the corona for several weeks or months, looping hundreds of thousands of kilometers into space. Some prominences may give rise to coronal mass ejections. Exact mechanism of prominence generation is an ongoing target of scientific research.

In solar physics, a coronal loop is a well-defined arch-like structure in the Sun's atmosphere made up of relatively dense plasma confined and isolated from the surrounding medium by magnetic flux tubes. Coronal loops begin and end at two footpoints on the photosphere and project into the transition region and lower corona. They typically form and dissipate over periods of seconds to days and may span anywhere from 1 to 1,000 megametres (621 to 621,000 mi) in length.

Coronal loops are often associated with the strong magnetic fields located within active regions and sunspots. The number of coronal loops varies with the 11 year solar cycle.