National Institute of Standards and Technology in the context of SWAC (computer)

Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks, followed by the minimization, monitoring, and control of the impact or probability of those risks occurring. Risks can come from various sources (i.e, threats) including uncertainty in international markets, political instability, dangers of project failures (at any phase in design, development, production, or sustaining of life-cycles), legal liabilities, credit risk, accidents, natural causes and disasters, deliberate attack from an adversary, or events of uncertain or unpredictable root-cause. Retail traders also apply risk management by using fixed percentage position sizing and risk-to-reward frameworks to avoid large drawdowns and support consistent decision-making under pressure.

Two types of events are analyzed in risk management: risks and opportunities. Negative events can be classified as risks while positive events are classified as opportunities. Risk management standards have been developed by various institutions, including the Project Management Institute, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, actuarial societies, and International Organization for Standardization. Methods, definitions and goals vary widely according to whether the risk management method is in the context of project management, security, engineering, industrial processes, financial portfolios, actuarial assessments, or public health and safety. Certain risk management standards have been criticized for having no measurable improvement on risk, whereas the confidence in estimates and decisions seems to increase.

ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is a standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical international standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems and services. Some 12,575 apply globally. The headquarters is in West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, about 5 mi (8.0 km) northwest of Philadelphia. It was founded in 1902 as the American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials.

In addition to its traditional standards work, ASTM operates several global initiatives advancing additive manufacturing, advanced manufacturing, and emerging technologies, including the Additive Manufacturing Center of Excellence (AM CoE), the acquisition of Wohlers Associates for market intelligence and advisory services, and the NIST-funded Standardization Center of Excellence (SCOE).

Standard temperature and pressure (STP) or standard conditions for temperature and pressure are various standard sets of conditions for experimental measurements used to allow comparisons to be made between different sets of data. The most used standards are those of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), although these are not universally accepted. Other organizations have established a variety of other definitions.

In industry and commerce, the standard conditions for temperature and pressure are often necessary for expressing the volumes of gases and liquids and related quantities such as the rate of volumetric flow (the volumes of gases vary significantly with temperature and pressure): standard cubic meters per second (Sm/s), and normal cubic meters per second (Nm/s).

Metrology is the scientific study of measurement. It establishes a common understanding of units, crucial in linking human activities. Modern metrology has its roots in the French Revolution's political motivation to standardise units in France when a length standard taken from a natural source was proposed. This led to the creation of the decimal-based metric system in 1795, establishing a set of standards for other types of measurements. Several other countries adopted the metric system between 1795 and 1875; to ensure conformity between the countries, the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM) was established by the Metre Convention. This has evolved into the International System of Units (SI) as a result of a resolution at the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in 1960.

Metrology is divided into three basic overlapping activities:

Deborah Shiu-lan Jin (Chinese: 金秀兰; pinyin: Jīn Xiùlán; November 15, 1968 – September 15, 2016) was an American physicist and fellow with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST); Professor Adjunct, Department of Physics at the University of Colorado; and a fellow of the JILA, a NIST joint laboratory with the University of Colorado.

She was considered a pioneer in polar molecular quantum chemistry. From 1995 to 1997 she worked with Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at JILA, where she was involved in some of the earliest studies of dilute gas Bose-Einstein condensates. In 2003 Jin's team at JILA made the first fermionic condensate, a new form of matter. She used magnetic traps and lasers to cool fermionic atomic gases to less than 100 billionths of a degree above zero, successfully demonstrating quantum degeneracy and the formation of a molecular Bose-Einstein condensate. Jin was frequently mentioned as a strong candidate for the Nobel Prize in Physics. In 2002, Discover magazine recognized her as one of the 50 most important women in science.

A Kibble balance (also formerly known as a watt balance) is an electromechanical measuring instrument that measures the weight of a test object very precisely by the electric current and voltage needed to produce a compensating force. It is a metrological instrument that can realize the definition of the kilogram unit of mass based on fundamental constants.

It was originally known as a watt balance because the weight of the test mass is proportional to the product of current and voltage, which is measured in watts. In June 2016, two months after the death of its inventor, Bryan Kibble, metrologists of the Consultative Committee for Units of the International Committee for Weights and Measures agreed to rename the device in his honor.

Lyman James Briggs (May 7, 1874 – March 25, 1963) was an American engineer, physicist and administrator. He was the third director of the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) during the Great Depression and chairman of the Uranium Committee before America entered the Second World War. The Lyman Briggs College at Michigan State University is named in his honor.

The Committee on Science, Space, and Technology is a committee of the United States House of Representatives. It has jurisdiction over non-defense federal scientific research and development. More specifically, the committee has complete jurisdiction over the following federal agencies: NASA, NSF, NIST, and the OSTP. The committee also has authority over R&D activities at the Department of Energy, the EPA, FAA, NOAA, the DOT, the NWS, the DHS and the U.S. Fire Administration.

The rad is a unit of absorbed radiation dose, defined as 1 rad = 0.01 Gy = 0.01 J/kg. It was originally defined in CGS units in 1953 as the dose causing 100 ergs of energy to be absorbed by one gram of matter. The material absorbing the radiation can be human tissue, air, water, or any other substance.

It has been replaced by the gray (symbol Gy) in SI derived units. The rad is still used in the United States, although this is "strongly discouraged" in Chapter 5.2 of the Guide to the SI, which was written and published by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology. However, the numerically equivalent SI unit submultiple, the centigray (symbol cGy), is widely used to report absorbed doses within radiotherapy. The roentgen, used to quantify the radiation exposure, may be related to the corresponding absorbed dose by use of the F-factor.

Edward Uhler Condon (March 2, 1902 – March 26, 1974) was an American nuclear physicist, a pioneer in quantum mechanics, and a participant during World War II in the development of radar and, very briefly, of nuclear weapons as part of the Manhattan Project. The Franck–Condon principle and the Slater–Condon rules are co-named after him.

He was the fourth director of the National Bureau of Standards (NIST) from 1945 to 1951. In 1946, Condon was president of the American Physical Society, and in 1953 was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Title 15 of the United States Code outlines the role of commerce and trade in the United States Code.Notable legislation in the title includes the Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Sherman Antitrust Act, the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, the Consumer Product Safety Act, and the CAN-SPAM Act of 2003.

• 15 U.S.C. ch. 1—Monopolies and Combinations in Restraint of Trade; 15 U.S. Code § 13a is the Robinson Patman Act
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 2—Federal Trade Commission; Promotion Of Export Trade And Prevention Of Unfair Methods uk Competition
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 2A—Securities Act, Trust Indentures Act
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 2B—Securities Exchanges
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 2B-1—Securities Investor Protection
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 2C—Public Utility Holding Companies
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 2D—Investment Company Act, Investment Advisers Act
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 2E—Omnibus Small Business Capital Formation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 3—Trade-Marks
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 4—China Trade
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 5—Statistical and Commercial Information
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 6—Weights and Measures and Standard Time
  • Subchapter I—Weights, Measures, and Standards Generally
  • Subchapter II—Metric Conversion
  • Subchapter III—Standard Gauge for Iron and Steel
  • Subchapter IV—Screw Threads
  • Subchapter V—Standard of Electricity
  • Subchapter VI—Standard Barrels
  • Subchapter VII—Standard Baskets and Containers
  • Subchapter VIII—Standard Hampers, Round Stave Baskets, and Splint Baskets for Fruits and Vegetables
  • Subchapter IX—Standard Time
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 7—National Institute of Standards and Technology
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 7A—Standard Reference Data Program
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 8—Falsely Stamped Gold or Silver or Goods Manufactured Therefrom
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 9—National Weather Service
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 9A—Weather Modification Activities Or Attempts; Reporting Requirement
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 10—War Finance Corporation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 10A—Collection of State Cigarette Taxes
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 10B—State Taxation of Income from Interstate Commerce
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 11—Caustic Poisons (repealed)
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 12—Discrimination Against Farmers Cooperative Associations by Boards Of Trade
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 13—Textile Foundation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 13A—Fishing Industry
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 14—Reconstruction Finance Corporation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 14A—Aid to Small Business
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 14B—Small Business Investment Program
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 15—Economic Recovery
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 15A—Interstate Transportation Of Petroleum Products
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 15B—Natural Gas
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 15C—Alaska Natural Gas Transportation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 16—Emergency Relief
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 16A—Emergency Petroleum Allocation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 16B—Federal Energy Administration
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 16C – Energy Supply and Environmental Coordination
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 17 – Production, Marketing, and Use of Bituminous Coal
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 18 – Transportation of Firearms
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 19 – Miscellaneous
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 20 – Regulation of Insurance, McCarran–Ferguson Act
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 21 – National Policy on Employment and Productivity
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 22 – Trademarks (Lanham Act)
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 23 – Dissemination of Technical, Scientific and Engineering Information
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 24 – Transportation of Gambling Devices
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 25 – Flammable Fabrics
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 26 – Household Refrigerators
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 27 – Automobile Dealer Suits Against Manufacturers
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 28 – Disclosure of Automobile Information
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 29 – Manufacture, Transportation, or Distribution of Switchblade Knives
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 30 – Hazardous Substances
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 31 – Destruction of Property Moving in Commerce
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 32 – Telecasting of Professional Sports Contests
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 33 – Brake Fluid Regulation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 34 – Antitrust Civil Process
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 35 – Seat Belt Regulation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 36 – Cigarette Labeling and Advertising
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 37 – State Technical Services
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 38 – Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 39 – Fair Packaging and Labeling Program
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 39A – Special Packaging of Household Substances for Protection of Children
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 40 – Department of Commerce
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 41 – Consumer Credit Protection
  • Subchapter I — Consumer Credit Cost Disclosure
  • Subchapter II — Restrictions on Garnishment
  • Subchapter IIA — Credit Repair Organizations
  • Subchapter III — Fair Credit Reporting Act
  • Subchapter IV — Equal Credit Opportunity
  • Subchapter V — Debt Collection Practices
  • Subchapter VI — Electronic Funds Transfer
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 42—Interstate Land Sales
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 43—Newspaper Preservation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 44—Protection of Horses
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 45—Emergency Loan Guarantees to Business Enterprises
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 45A—Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 46—Motor Vehicle Information and Cost Savings
  • Subchapter I: Bumper Standards
  • Subchapter II: Automobile Consumer Information Study
  • Subchapter III: Diagnostic Inspection Demonstration Projects
  • Subchapter IV: Odometer Requirements
  • Subchapter V: Improving Automotive Efficiency
  • Subchapter VI: Theft Prevention
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 46A—Automobile Title Fraud
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 47—Consumer Product Safety
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 48—Hobby Protection
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 49—Fire Prevention and Control
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 50—Consumer Product Warranties
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 51—National Productivity and Quality of Working Life
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 52—Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Research, Development, and Demonstration
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 53—Toxic Substances Control
  • Subchapter I—Control of Toxic Substances
  • Subchapter II—Asbestos Hazard Emergency Response
  • Subchapter III—Indoor Radon Abatement
  • Subchapter IV—Lead Exposure Reduction
  • Subchapter V—Healthy High Performance Schools
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 54—Automotive Propulsion Research and Development
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 55—Petroleum Marketing Practices
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 56—National Climate Program
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 56A—Global Change Research
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 57—Interstate Horseracing
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 58—Full Employment and Balanced Growth
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 59—Retail Policies for Natural Gas Utilities
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 60—Natural Gas Policy
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 61—Soft Drink Interbrand Competition
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 62—Condominium and Cooperative Conversion Protection and Abuse Relief
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 63—Technology Innovation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 64—Methane Transportation Research, Development, and Demonstration
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 65—Liability Risk Retention
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 66—Promotion of Export Trade
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 67—Arctic Research and Policy
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 68—Land Remote-Sensing Commercialization
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 69—Cooperative Research
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 70—Comprehensive Smokeless Tobacco Health Education
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 71—Petroleum Overcharge Distribution and Restitution
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 72—Semiconductor Research
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 73—Export Enhancement
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 74—Competitiveness Policy Council
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 75—National Trade Data Bank
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 76—Imitation Firearms
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 77—Steel and Aluminum Energy Conservation and Technology Competitiveness
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 78—Superconductivity and Competitiveness
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 79—Metal Casting Competitiveness Research Program
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 80—Fasteners
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 81—High-Performance Computing
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 82—Land Remote Sensing Policy
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 83—Telephone Disclosure and Dispute Resolution
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 84—Commercial Space Competitiveness
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 85—Armored Car Industry Reciprocity
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 86—Children's Bicycle Helmet Safety
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 87—Telemarketing and Consumer Fraud and Abuse Prevention
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 88—International Antitrust Enforcement Assistance
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 89—Professional Boxing Safety
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 90—Propane Education and Research
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 91—Children's Online Privacy Protection
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 92—Year 2000 Computer Date Change
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 93—Insurance, Title III of Gramm–Leach–Bliley Activities
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 94—Privacy
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 95—Microenterprise Technical Assistance and Capacity Building Program
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 96—Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 97—Women's Business Enterprise Development
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 98—Public Company Accounting Reform and Corporate Responsibility, also known as the "Sarbanes–Oxley Act"
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 99—National Construction Safety Team
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 100—Cyber Security Research and Development
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 101—Nanotechnology Research and Development
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 102—Fairness to Contact Lens Consumers
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 103—Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 104—Sports Agent Responsibility and Trust
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 105—Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 106—Pool and Spa Safety
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 107—Protection of Intellectual Property Rights
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 108—State-Based Insurance Reform
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 109—Wall Street Transparency and Accountability
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 110—Online Shopper Protection
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 111—Weather Research and Forecasting Innovation
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 112—Sports Medicine Licensure
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 113—Concrete Masonry Products Research, Education, and Promotion
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 114—National Quantum Initiative
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 115—Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Emerging Contaminants
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 116—Coronavirus Economic Stabilization (CARES ACT)
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 117—Identifying Outputs of Generative Adversarial Networks
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 118—Sustainable Chemistry
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 119—National Artificial Intelligence Initiative
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 120—Minority Business Development
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 121—Flood Level Observation, Operations, and Decision Support
• 15 U.S.C. ch. 122—Travel and Tourism

Electronic data interchange (EDI) is the concept of businesses electronically communicating information that was traditionally communicated on paper, such as purchase orders, advance ship notices, and invoices. Technical standards for EDI exist to facilitate parties transacting such instruments without having to make special arrangements.

EDI has existed at least since the early 1970s, and there are many EDI standards (including X12, EDIFACT, ODETTE, etc.), some of which address the needs of specific industries or regions. It also refers specifically to a family of standards. In 1996, the National Institute of Standards and Technology defined electronic data interchange as "the computer-to-computer interchange of a standardized format for data exchange. EDI implies a sequence of messages between two parties, either of whom may serve as originator or recipient. The formatted data representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipient via telecommunications or physically transported on electronic storage media." It distinguished mere electronic communication or data exchange, specifying that "in EDI, the usual processing of received messages is by computer only. Human intervention in the processing of a received message is typically intended only for error conditions, for quality review, and for special situations. For example, the transmission of binary or textual data is not EDI as defined here unless the data are treated as one or more data elements of an EDI message and are not normally intended for human interpretation as part of online data processing." In short, EDI can be defined as the transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards, from one computer system to another without human intervention.

In the United States, time is divided into nine standard time zones covering the states, territories and other US possessions, with most of the country observing daylight saving time (DST) for approximately the spring, summer, and fall months. The time zone boundaries and DST observance are regulated by the Department of Transportation, but no single official map of those existed until the agency announced intentions to make one in September 2022. Official and highly precise timekeeping services (clocks) are provided by two federal agencies: the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) (an agency of the Department of Commerce); and the United States Naval Observatory (USNO). The clocks run by these services are kept synchronized with each other as well as with those of other international timekeeping organizations.

It is the combination of the time zone and daylight saving rules, along with the timekeeping services, which determines the legal civil time for any U.S. location at any moment.

Isotopic reference materials are compounds (solids, liquids, gasses) with well-defined isotopic compositions and are the ultimate sources of accuracy in mass spectrometric measurements of isotope ratios. Isotopic references are used because mass spectrometers are highly fractionating. As a result, the isotopic ratio that the instrument measures can be very different from that in the sample's measurement. Moreover, the degree of instrument fractionation changes during measurement, often on a timescale shorter than the measurement's duration, and can depend on the characteristics of the sample itself. By measuring a material of known isotopic composition, fractionation within the mass spectrometer can be removed during post-measurement data processing. Without isotope references, measurements by mass spectrometry would be much less accurate and could not be used in comparisons across different analytical facilities. Due to their critical role in measuring isotope ratios, and in part, due to historical legacy, isotopic reference materials define the scales on which isotope ratios are reported in the peer-reviewed scientific literature.

Isotope reference materials are generated, maintained, and sold by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), the United States Geologic Survey (USGS), the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM), and a variety of universities and scientific supply companies. Each of the major stable isotope systems (hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur) has a wide variety of references encompassing distinct molecular structures. For example, nitrogen isotope reference materials include N-bearing molecules such ammonia (NH₃), atmospheric dinitrogen (N₂), and nitrate (NO₃). Isotopic abundances are commonly reported using the δ notation, which is the ratio of two isotopes (R) in a sample relative to the same ratio in a reference material, often reported in per mille (‰) (equation below). Reference material span a wide range of isotopic compositions, including enrichments (positive δ) and depletions (negative δ). While the δ values of references are widely available, estimates of the absolute isotope ratios (R) in these materials are seldom reported. This article aggregates the δ and R values of common and non-traditional stable isotope reference materials.