Giles of Rome in the context of "Parva Naturalia"

Junia or Junias (Biblical Greek: Ἰουνία/Ἰουνίας, Iounia/Iounias) was a Christian in the first century known from Paul the Apostle's letter to the Romans.

There has been dispute surrounding both Junia's gender and apostolic status, although she has been viewed as female through most of Christian history as well as by the majority of scholars. The precise nature of her apostolic status, however, has been more debated. With the exception of the reference to a masculine "Junias" in the Index Discipulorum, purportedly from Epiphanius of Salamis (fourth century), the first texts regarding Junia as a male named Junias come from 12th century manuscripts and the first named author to describe Junia as a male was Giles of Rome in the 13th century.

In the Middle Ages, hierocracy or papalism was a current of Latin legal and political thought that argued that the Pope held supreme authority over not just spiritual, but also temporal affairs. In its full, late medieval form, hierocratic theory posited that since Christ was lord of the universe and both king and priest, and the Pope was his earthly vicar, the Pope must also possess both spiritual and temporal authority over everybody in the world. Papalist writers at the turn of the 14th century such as Augustinus Triumphus and Giles of Rome depicted secular government as a product of human sinfulness that originated, by necessity, in tyrannical usurpation, and could be redeemed only by submission to the superior spiritual sovereignty of the Pope. At the head of the Catholic Church, responsible to no other jurisdiction except God, the pope, they argued, was the monarch of a universal kingdom whose power extended to Christians and non-Christians alike.

The hierocrats limited their extensive conception of the Pope's authority by acknowledging that the day-to-day exercise of temporal power belonged, in general, to secular princes, albeit under the guidance of the Pope. Hierocracy was criticised at the time from a pro-royal perspective by John of Paris, in defence of the universal monarchy of the Holy Roman Emperor by Dante Alighieri, and by critics of papal supremacy over the Catholic Church itself such as Marsilius of Padua. Though hierocracy continued to influence papal policy until the time of the Reformation, by the 17th century the doctrine was generally rejected by Catholic theologians.

Augustinus Triumphus OSA (Italian: Agostino Trionfo; 1243 – 2 April 1328), also known as Augustinus of Ancona, was a Hermit of St. Augustine and writer. He is celebrated for his work Summa de potestate ecclesiastica, printed in 1473. The Summa became a standard reference for papalist arguments in the later 16th century, and was several times reprinted.

Alongside James of Viterbo, Giles of Rome, and Alvarus Pelagius, Augustinus was among the leading pro-papal jurists. His title Triumphus is first attested in the 16th century.