Cervical cancer in the context of "Cytopathology"

The neck is the part of the body in many vertebrates that connects the head to the torso. It supports the weight of the head and protects the nerves that transmit sensory and motor information between the brain and the rest of the body. Additionally, the neck is highly flexible, allowing the head to turn and move in all directions. Anatomically, the human neck is divided into four compartments: vertebral, visceral, and two vascular compartments. Within these compartments, the neck houses the cervical vertebrae, the cervical portion of the spinal cord, upper parts of the respiratory and digestive tracts, endocrine glands, nerves, arteries⁣⁣ and veins. The muscles of the neck, which are separate from the compartments, form the boundaries of the neck triangles.

In anatomy, the neck is also referred to as the cervix or collum. However, when the term cervix is used alone, it often refers to the uterine cervix, the neck of the ⁣⁣uterus⁣⁣. Therefore, the adjective cervical can refer either to the neck (as in cervical vertebrae or cervical lymph nodes) or to the uterine cervix (as in cervical cap or cervical cancer).

Paclitaxel, sold under the brand name Taxol among others, is a chemotherapy medication used to treat ovarian cancer, esophageal cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, Kaposi's sarcoma, cervical cancer, and pancreatic cancer. It is administered by intravenous injection. There is also an albumin-bound formulation.

Common side effects include hair loss, bone marrow suppression, numbness, allergic reactions, muscle pains, and diarrhea. Other side effects include heart problems, increased risk of infection, and lung inflammation. There are concerns that use during pregnancy may cause birth defects. Paclitaxel is in the taxane family of medications. It works by interference with the normal function of microtubules during cell division.

HeLa (/ˈhiːlɑː/) is an immortalized cell line used in scientific research. It is the oldest human cell line and one of the most commonly used. HeLa cells are durable and prolific, allowing for extensive applications in scientific study. The line is derived from cervical cancer cells taken on February 8, 1951, from Henrietta Lacks, a 31-year-old African American woman, after whom the line is named. Lacks died of cancer on October 4, 1951.

The cells from Lacks's cancerous cervical tumor were taken without her knowledge, which was common practice in the United States at the time. Cell biologist George Otto Gey found that they could be kept alive, and developed a cell line. Previously, cells cultured from other human cells would survive for only a few days, but cells from Lacks's tumor behaved differently.

Human papillomavirus infection (HPV infection) is an infection caused by a DNA virus from the Papillomaviridae family. Many HPV infections cause no symptoms and 90% resolve spontaneously within two years. Sometimes an HPV infection persists and results in warts or precancerous lesions. Many warts are caused by HPV. These lesions, depending on the site affected, increase the risk of cancer of the cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, tonsils, or throat. Nearly all cervical cancer is due to HPV and two strains, HPV16 and HPV18, account for 70% of all cases. HPV16 is responsible for almost 90% of HPV-related cancers of the mouth, throat, or tonsils. Between 60% and 90% of the other cancers listed above are also linked to HPV. HPV6 and HPV11 are common causes of genital warts and laryngeal papillomatosis.

Over 200 types of HPV have been described. An individual can become infected with more than one type of HPV and the disease is only known to affect humans. More than 40 types may be spread through sexual contact and infect the anus and genitals. Risk factors for persistent infection by sexually transmitted types include early age of first sexual intercourse, multiple sexual partners, smoking and poor immune function. These types are typically spread by direct skin-to-skin contact, with vaginal and anal sex being the most common methods. HPV infection can spread from a mother to baby during pregnancy. There is limited evidence that HPV can spread indirectly, but some studies suggest it is theoretically possible to spread via contact with contaminated surfaces. HPV is not killed by common hand sanitizers or disinfectants, increasing the possibility of the virus being transferred via non-living infectious agents called fomites.

The Cervical Cancer gene DataBase (CCDB) is a database of genes involved in the cervical carcinogenesis. The Cervical Cancer Database is the first database that has been manually curated. The database serves as an entity for clinicians and researchers to examine basic information as well as advanced information about the genes that differentiates into cervical cancer. There are 537 genes that have been cataloged into the CCBD. The genes that have been cataloged based on polymorphism, methylation, amplification of genes, and the change in how the gene is expressed. Science investigators have examined data that compared normal cervical cells with malignant cervical cells which has been used to study the different gene expressions that result in cervical cancer. Of the 500,000 women that have succumbed to cervical, most are from developing countries as well as of the low socioeconomic level in developed countries. The CCBD is designed to present information that will novel therapeutic treatments for leading cause of cancer within the population of women.

A precancerous condition is a condition, tumor or lesion involving abnormal cells which are associated with an increased risk of developing into cancer. Clinically, precancerous conditions encompass a variety of abnormal tissues with an increased risk of developing into cancer. Some of the most common precancerous conditions include certain colon polyps, which can progress into colon cancer, monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance, which can progress into multiple myeloma or myelodysplastic syndrome. and cervical dysplasia, which can progress into cervical cancer. Bronchial premalignant lesions can progress to squamous cell carcinoma of the lung.

Pathologically, precancerous tissue can range from benign neoplasias, which are tumors which don't invade neighboring normal tissues or spread to distant organs, to dysplasia, a collection of highly abnormal cells which, in some cases, has an increased risk of progressing to anaplasia and invasive cancer which is life-threatening. Sometimes, the term "precancer" is also used for carcinoma in situ, which is a noninvasive cancer that has not grown and spread to nearby tissue, unlike the invasive stage. As with other precancerous conditions, not all carcinoma in situ will become an invasive disease but is at risk of doing so.

Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), also known as cervical dysplasia, is the abnormal growth of cells on the surface of the cervix that could potentially lead to cervical cancer. More specifically, CIN refers to the potentially precancerous transformation of cells of the cervix.

CIN most commonly occurs at the squamocolumnar junction of the cervix, a transitional area between the squamous epithelium of the vagina and the columnar epithelium of the endocervix. It can also occur in vaginal walls and vulvar epithelium. CIN is graded on a 1–3 scale, with 3 being the most abnormal (see classification section below).

Cervical cancer screening is a medical screening test designed to identify risk of cervical cancer. Cervical screening may involve looking for viral DNA, and/or identifying abnormal, potentially precancerous cells within the cervix as well as cells that have progressed to early stages of cervical cancer. One goal of cervical screening is to allow for intervention and treatment so abnormal lesions can be removed before progression to cancer. An additional goal is to decrease mortality from cervical cancer by identifying cancerous lesions in their early stages and providing treatment before progression to more invasive disease.

Currently available screening tests fall into three categories: molecular, cytologic, and visual inspection. Molecular screening tests include nucleic acid amplification tests (NAAT), which identify high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) strains. Cytologic tests include conventional Pap smear and liquid-based cytology. Visual Inspection tests involve application of a solution to enhance identification of abnormal areas and can utilize the naked eye or a colposcope/magnifying camera.