Zhuangzi (book) in the context of "False dichotomy"

Taoism or Daoism (/ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ , /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/ ) is a philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao 道 (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào, pronounced (IPA): /tɑʊ̯/ (Chinese)). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality. Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition, ideation of mathematics and beyond, including forms of meditation, astrology, qigong, feng shui, and internal alchemy. A common goal of Taoist practice is self-cultivation, a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action, naturalness, simplicity, and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility.

The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period (c. 450 – c. 300 BCE), during which the epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi—widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism, Mohism, Confucianism, various Legalist theories, as well as the I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals.

The Tao Te Ching or Dào Dé Jīng, (traditional Chinese: 道德經; simplified Chinese: 道德经; lit. 'Classic of the Way and its Virtue') often Laozi in Chinese or scholarship, is an ancient Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and dates of composition or compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion dates to the late 4th century BCE. While tradition places Laozi earlier, modern versions of the text could more conservatively be estimated to date back to the late Warring States period (475 – 221 BCE), not having been recovered that early.

The Tao Te Ching is central to both philosophical and religious Taoism, and has been highly influential on Chinese philosophy and religious practice in general. It is generally taken as preceding the Zhuangzi, the other core Taoist text. Terminology originating within the text has been reinterpreted and elaborated upon by Legalist thinkers, Confucianists, and particularly Chinese Buddhists, introduced to China significantly after the initial solidification of Taoist thought. One of the most translated texts in world literature, the text is well known in the West.

The Daozang (Chinese: 道藏; pinyin: Dàozàng; Wade–Giles: Tao Tsang) is a large canon of Taoist writings, consisting of around 1,500 texts that were seen as continuing traditions first embodied by the Daodejing, Zhuangzi, and Liezi. The canon was assembled by monks c. 400 CE in an attempt to bring together these disparate yet consonant teachings, and it included commentaries and expositions from various masters on material found in the aforementioned core texts of Taoism. The anthology consisted of three divisions (known as grottoes) based on what were seen at that time in Southern China as Taoism's primary focuses: meditation, ritual, and exorcism. These three grottoes were ranked by skill level—with exorcism being the lowest and meditation the highest—and used for the initiation of Taoist masters.

In addition to the Three Grottoes, there were the "Four Supplements" that were added to the canon c. 500 CE. Three were primarily sourced from the older core texts, with the other taken from a separate, established philosophical tradition known as Tianshi Dao.

Zhenren (Chinese: 真人; pinyin: zhēnrén; Wade–Giles: chen-jen; lit. 'true/ upright/ genuine person' or 'person of truth') is a Chinese term that first appeared in the Zhuangzi meaning "a Taoist spiritual master" in those writings, as in one who has mastered realization of the Tao. Religious Taoism mythologized zhenren, having them occupy various places in the celestial hierarchy sometimes synonymous with xian. Zhenren has been used in various ways depending on the sect and time period.

The Ten Wings (十翼 Shí Yì) is a collection of commentaries (傳 zhuàn) to the classical Chinese Book of Changes (易經 Yìjīng) traditionally ascribed to Confucius, though they were likely composed by later scholars. These writings represent the earliest known interpretations of the 周易 Zhōuyì, the Bronze Age divination manual underlying the Book of Changes (易經 Yìjīng). By offering philosophical and moral insights, the Ten Wings transformed the text from a practical guide for divination into a profound treatise on metaphysics, ethics, and cosmology.

The Ten Wings consist of the following commentaries on the Book of Changes (易經 Yìjīng):

Huang–Lao (simplified Chinese: 黄老; traditional Chinese: 黃老; pinyin: Huáng-Lǎo; Wade–Giles: Huang-lao; lit. 'Huangdi–Laozi') was the most influential Chinese school of thought in the early Han dynasty, having its origins in a broader political-philosophical drive looking for solutions to strengthen the feudal order as depicted in Zhou politics. Not systematically explained by historiographer Sima Qian, it is generally interpreted as a school of Syncretism, developing into a major religion, the beginnings of religious Taoism.

Emphasizing the search for immortality, Feng Youlan and Herrlee Creel considered its religious Taoism to be different from if not contradictory to the more philosophical strain of Taoism found in the Zhuangzi. Probably originating together around 300 BCE, the more politically dominant Huang–Lao denoted both for much of the Han. Highly favoured by superstitious rulers, it dominated the intellectual life of the Qin and early Han together with "Chinese Legalism", and the term "Taoism" (Chinese: 道家; pinyin: dàojiā) was probably coined with elements of Huang–Lao literature in mind.

Herbert Allen Giles (Chinese: 翟理斯, romanized: Zhái Lǐsī; 8 December 1845 – 13 February 1935) was a British diplomat and sinologist who held the Professorship of Chinese at the University of Cambridge for 35 years. Giles was educated at Charterhouse School before becoming a British diplomat in China. He modified a Mandarin Chinese romanization system established by Thomas Wade, resulting in the widely known Wade–Giles Chinese romanization system. Among his many works were translations of the Analects of Confucius, the Lao Tzu (Tao Te Ching), the Chuang Tzu, and, in 1892, the widely published A Chinese–English Dictionary.