Rust in the context of Lead(II,IV) oxide

A vase (/veɪs/, /veɪz/, or /vɑːz/) is an open container. It can be made from a number of materials, such as ceramics, glass, non-rusting metals, such as aluminium, brass, bronze, or stainless steel. Even wood has been used to make vases, either by using tree species that naturally resist rot, such as teak, or by applying a protective coating to conventional wood or plastic. Vases are often decorated, and they are often used to hold cut flowers. Vases come in different sizes to support whatever flower is being held or kept in place.

Vases generally share a similar shape. The foot or the base may be bulbous, flat, carinate, or another shape. The body forms the main portion of the piece. Some vases have a shoulder, where the body curves inward, a neck, which gives height, and a lip, where the vase flares back out at the top. Some vases are also given handles.

An iron oxide is a chemical compound composed of iron and oxygen. Several iron oxides are recognized. Often they are non-stoichiometric. Ferric oxyhydroxides are a related class of compounds, perhaps the best known of which is rust.

Iron oxides and oxyhydroxides are widespread in nature and play an important role in many geological and biological processes. They are used as iron ores, pigments, catalysts, and in thermite, and occur in hemoglobin. Iron oxides are inexpensive and durable pigments in paints, coatings and colored concretes. Colors commonly available are in the "earthy" end of the yellow/orange/red/brown/black range. When used as a food coloring, it has E number E172.

Weathering steel, often called corten steel (or its trademarked name, COR-TEN) is a group of steel alloys that form a stable external layer of rust that eliminates the need for painting.

U.S. Steel (USS) holds the registered trademark on the name COR-TEN. The name COR-TEN refers to the two distinguishing properties of this type of steel: corrosion resistance and tensile strength. Although USS sold its discrete plate business to International Steel Group (now ArcelorMittal) in 2003, it makes COR-TEN branded material in strip mill plate and sheet forms.

Stainless steel is an iron-based alloy that contains chromium, making it resistant to rust and corrosion. Alternatively, it is known as inox (an abbreviation of the French term inoxydable, meaning non-oxidizable), corrosion-resistant steel (CRES), Nirosta (an abbreviation of the German term nichtrostender Stahl) or rustless steel. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion comes from its chromium content of 10.5% or more, which forms a passive film that protects the material and can self-heal when exposed to oxygen. It can be further alloyed with elements like molybdenum, carbon, nickel and nitrogen to enhance specific properties for various applications.

The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances, vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products. Some grades are also suitable for forging and casting.

Soda blasting is a mild form of abrasive blasting in which sodium bicarbonate particles are blasted against a surface using compressed air. It has a much milder abrasive effect than sandblasting. An early use was in the conservation-restoration of the Statue of Liberty in the 1980s.

Soda blasting is a non-destructive method for many applications in cleaning, paint and varnish stripping, automotive restoration, industrial equipment maintenance, rust removal, graffiti removal, molecular steel passivation against rust, oil removal by saponification and translocation, masonry cleaning and restoration, soot remediation, boat hull cleaning and for food processing facilities and equipment and tooth cleaning at the dental laboratory.

The phlogiston theory, a superseded scientific theory, postulated the existence of a fire-like element dubbed phlogiston (/flɒˈdʒɪstən, floʊ-, -ɒn/) contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. The name comes from the Ancient Greek φλογιστόν phlogistón (burning up), from φλόξ phlóx (flame). The idea of a phlogistic substance was first proposed in 1669 by Johann Joachim Becher and later put together more formally in 1697 by Georg Ernst Stahl. Phlogiston theory attempted to explain chemical processes such as combustion and rusting, now collectively known as oxidation. The theory was challenged by the concomitant mass increase and was abandoned before the end of the 18th century following experiments by Antoine Lavoisier in the 1770s and by other scientists. Phlogiston theory led to experiments that ultimately resulted in the identification (c. 1771), and naming (1777), of oxygen by Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier, respectively.

Research stations are facilities where scientific investigation, collection, analysis and experimentation occurs. A research station is a facility that is built for the purpose of conducting scientific research. There are also many types of research stations including: biological field stations, space stations etc. Research station sites might include remote areas of the world, oceans, as well as outer space, such as the International Space Station. Biological research stations developed during a time of European colonization and imperialism where naturalists were employed to conduct observations on fauna and flora. Today, the discipline is represented by a number of organizations which span across multiple continents. Some examples include: the Organization of Biological Field Stations and the Organization for Tropical Studies.

Space stations were also developed over a number of decades through scientific analysis and writing, with the first design aspects of early space stations being introduced by Herman Potocnik in 1928. Since then, the construction and launch of space stations have been both national and international, collaborative efforts which have allowed different design philosophies to form key space stations such as the International Space Station (ISS). Similarly, stations in Antarctica are built to ensure that they are well insulated against the sub-zero temperatures of the exterior landscape with many redevelopments being required over the years to overcome issues associated with snowdrifts, accessibility and rusting.

In physical chemistry and engineering, passivation is coating a material so that it becomes "passive", that is, less readily affected or corroded by the environment. Passivation involves creation of an outer layer of shield material that is applied as a microcoating, created by chemical reaction with the base material, or allowed to build by spontaneous oxidation in the air. As a technique, passivation is the use of a light coat of a protective material, such as metal oxide, to create a shield against corrosion. Passivation of silicon is used during fabrication of microelectronic devices. Undesired passivation of electrodes, called "fouling", increases the circuit resistance so it interferes with some electrochemical applications such as electrocoagulation for wastewater treatment, amperometric chemical sensing, and electrochemical synthesis.

When exposed to air, many metals naturally form a hard, relatively inert surface layer, usually an oxide (termed the "native oxide layer") or a nitride, that serves as a passivation layer - i.e. these metals are "self-protecting". In the case of silver, the dark tarnish is a passivation layer of silver sulfide formed from reaction with environmental hydrogen sulfide. Aluminium similarly forms a stable protective oxide layer which is why it does not "rust". (In contrast, some base metals, notably iron, oxidize readily to form a rough, porous coating of rust that adheres loosely, is of higher volume than the original displaced metal, and sloughs off readily; all of which permit & promote further oxidation.) The passivation layer of oxide markedly slows further oxidation and corrosion in room-temperature air for aluminium, beryllium, chromium, zinc, titanium, and silicon (a metalloid). The inert surface layer formed by reaction with air has a thickness of about 1.5 nm for silicon, 1–10 nm for beryllium, and 1 nm initially for titanium, growing to 25 nm after several years. Similarly, for aluminium, it grows to about 5 nm after several years.

Tarnish is a thin layer of corrosion that forms over copper, brass, aluminum, magnesium, neodymium and other similar metals as their outermost layer undergoes a chemical reaction. Tarnish does not always result from the sole effects of oxygen in the air. For example, silver needs hydrogen sulfide to tarnish, although it may tarnish with oxygen over time. It often appears as a dull, gray or black film or coating over metal. Tarnish is a surface phenomenon that is self-limiting, unlike rust. Only the top few layers of the metal react. The layer of tarnish seals and protects the underlying layers from reacting.

Tarnish preserves the underlying metal in outdoor use, and in this form is called chemical patina, an example of which is the green or blue-green form of copper(II) carbonate known as verdigris. Unlike patina advantageous in applications such as copper roofing and copper, bronze, and brass statues and fittings exposed to the elements, a chemical patina may be considered undesirable, as on silverware, or a matter of taste or convention, as in toning on coins.

A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process. It is a term used in a variety of contexts, including semantics, design, electronics, and software programming. A prototype is generally used to evaluate a new design to enhance precision by system analysts and users. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one. Physical prototyping has a long history, and paper prototyping and virtual prototyping now extensively complement it. In some design workflow models, creating a prototype (a process sometimes called materialization) is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea.

A prototype can also mean a typical example of something such as in the use of the derivation 'prototypical'. This is a useful term in identifying objects, behaviours and concepts which are considered the accepted norm and is analogous with terms such as stereotypes and archetypes.

Iron(III) oxide-hydroxide or ferric oxyhydroxide is the chemical compound of iron, oxygen, and hydrogen with formula FeO(OH).

The compound is often encountered as one of its hydrates, FeO(OH)·nH
₂O (rust). The monohydrate FeO(OH)·H
₂O is often referred to as iron(III) hydroxide Fe(OH)
₃, hydrated iron oxide, yellow iron oxide, or Pigment Yellow 42.

A needlegun scaler, needle scaler, or needle-gun is a tool used to remove rust, mill scale, and old paint from metal surfaces. The tool is used in metalwork applications as diverse as home repair, automotive repair, and shipboard preservation.

The iron cycle (Fe) is the biogeochemical cycle of iron through the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and lithosphere. While Fe is highly abundant in the Earth's crust, it is less common in oxygenated surface waters. Iron is a key micronutrient in primary productivity, and a limiting nutrient in the Southern ocean, eastern equatorial Pacific, and the subarctic Pacific referred to as High-Nutrient, Low-Chlorophyll (HNLC) regions of the ocean.

While iron can exist in a range of oxidation states from −2 to +7; however, on Earth it is predominantly in its +2 or +3 redox state. It is a primary redox-active metal in nature. The cycling of iron between its +2 and +3 oxidation states is referred to as the iron cycle. This process can be entirely abiotic or facilitated by microorganisms, especially iron-oxidizing bacteria. The abiotic processes include the rusting of metallic which, in addition to oxidation of the metal, involves oxidation of Fe(II) in the presence of oxygen. Another type of abiotic process is the reduction of Fe to Fe by sulfide minerals. The biological cycling of Fe is mediated by iron oxidizing and reducing microbes.