Liangzhu culture in the context of Type site

The 4.2-kiloyear event (also known as the 4.2 ka event) was an aridification event (long-term drought), 4,200 years ago (4,200 years BP). It was one of the most severe climatic events of the Holocene epoch. It defines the beginning of the current Meghalayan age in the Holocene epoch.

Starting around 2200 BC, it most likely lasted the entire 22nd century BC. It has been hypothesised to have caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt, the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia, and the Liangzhu culture in the lower Yangtze River area. The drought may also have initiated the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization, with some of its population moving southeast to follow the movement of their desired habitat, as well as the migration of Indo-European-speaking people into India. Some scientists disagree with that conclusion, citing evidence that the event was not a global drought and did not happen in a clear timeline.

The taotie is an ancient Chinese mythological creature that was commonly emblazoned on bronze and other artifacts during the 1st millennium BCE. Taotie are one of the Four Perils in Chinese classics like the Classic of Mountains and Seas, alongside the Hundun, Qiongqi, and Taowu.

The Taotie is often represented as a motif on dings, which are Chinese ritual bronze vessels from the Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BCE) and Zhou dynasties (c. 1046 – 256 BCE). The design typically consists of a zoomorphic mask, described as being frontal, bilaterally symmetrical, with a pair of raised eyes and typically no lower jaw area. Some argue that the design can be traced back to jade pieces found at Neolithic sites belonging to the Liangzhu culture (3310–2250 BCE). There are notable similarities with the jades of the Shijiahe culture (2500-2000 BCE) and the painted pottery of the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BCE).

The archaeological ruins of Liangzhu City, or simply the Liangzhu site, are a cluster of Neolithic sites located in the Liangzhu Subdistrict and Pingyao Town of Yuhang, Hangzhou, China. Initially excavated by Shi Xingeng in 1936, the ruins were recognised to belong to a previously unknown civilisation, termed Liangzhu culture, in 1959. The site was confirmed as an ancient city after the discovery of its city walls in 2006.

Situated in the southwestern part of the Liangzhu cultural area, this city is thought to have been the political and spiritual centre of Liangzhu culture, exemplifying a prehistoric, rice-cultivating urban society of an early state in the Yangtze River basin. The site includes a walled city with palatial complexes, ceremonial areas, and an intricate hydraulic system, indicative of a highly developed society with centralised governance. The hydraulic system of Liangzhu is by far the earliest known one in the world. Existing from approximately 3300 to 2300 BCE, the city was ultimately abandoned, and the civilisation collapsed due to extensive flooding linked to climate change.

Chinese jade refers to the jade mined or carved in China from the Neolithic onward. It is the primary hardstone of Chinese sculpture. Although deep and bright green jadeite is better known in Europe, for most of China's history, jade has come in a variety of colors and white "mutton-fat" nephrite was the most highly praised and prized. Native sources in Henan and along the Yangtze were exploited since prehistoric times and have largely been exhausted; most Chinese jade today is extracted from the northwestern province of Xinjiang.

Jade was prized for its hardness, durability, musical qualities, and beauty. In particular, its subtle, translucent colors and protective qualities caused it to become associated with Chinese conceptions of the soul and immortality. With gold, it was considered to be a symbol of heaven. Jade production began in China over seven millennia ago (c. 5000 BCE), yielding the largest body of intricately crafted jade artifacts created by any single civilization. A prominent early use was the crafting of the Six Ritual Jades, found since the 3rd-millennium BCE Liangzhu culture: the bi, the cong, the huang, the hu, the gui, and the zhang. Since the meanings of these shapes were not mentioned prior to the eastern Zhou dynasty, by the time of the composition of the Rites of Zhou, they were thought to represent the sky, the earth, and the four directions. By the Han dynasty, the royal family and prominent lords were buried entirely ensheathed in jade burial suits sewn in gold thread, on the idea that it would preserve the body and the souls attached to it. Jade was also thought to combat fatigue in the living. The Han also greatly improved prior artistic treatment of jade.

Shi Xingeng ((1912-08-02)2 August 1912 – (1939-05-29)29 May 1939) was a Chinese geologist, mineralogist, and archaeologist. He is known as the earliest scientific excavator of the Liangzhu site and a prominent researcher of Liangzhu culture, for he conducted the earliest scientific excavations of the archaeological ruins of Liangzhu.