Kidney stone in the context of "Hematuria"

Urology (from Greek οὖρον ouron "urine" and -λογία -logia "study of"), also known as genitourinary surgery, is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the urinary system and the male reproductive organs. Organs under the domain of urology include the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, and the male reproductive organs (testes, epididymides, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis).

The urinary and reproductive tracts are closely linked, and disorders of one often affect the other. Thus a major spectrum of the conditions managed in urology exists under the domain of genitourinary disorders. Urology combines the management of medical (i.e., non-surgical) conditions, such as urinary-tract infections and benign prostatic hyperplasia, with the management of surgical conditions such as bladder or prostate cancer, kidney stones, congenital abnormalities, traumatic injury, and stress incontinence.

The ureters are tubes composed of smooth muscle that transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In adult humans, the ureters are typically 20–30 centimeters long and 3–4 millimeters in diameter. They are lined with urothelial cells, a form of transitional epithelium, and feature an extra layer of smooth muscle in the lower third to aid peristalsis.The ureters can be affected by diseases including urinary tract infections and kidney stones. Stenosis is the narrowing of a ureter, often caused by chronic inflammation. Congenital abnormalities can cause development of two ureters on the same side or abnormally placed ureters. Reflux of urine from the bladder into the ureters is common in children.

The ureters have been identified for at least two thousand years, with the word ureter stemming from the stem uro- relating to urinating and seen in written records since at least the time of Hippocrates. It is, however, only since the 16th century that the term "ureter" has been consistently used to refer to the modern structure, and only since the development of medical imaging in the 20th century that techniques such as X-ray, CT, and ultrasound have been able to view the ureters. The ureters are also seen from the inside using a flexible camera, called ureteroscopy, which was first described in 1964.

Morphine, formerly known as morphium, is an opiate found naturally in opium, a dark brown resin produced by drying the latex of opium poppies (Papaver somniferum). It is mainly used as an analgesic (pain medication). There are multiple methods used to administer morphine: oral; sublingual; via inhalation; injection into a muscle, injection under the skin, or injection into the spinal cord area; transdermal; intravenously; or via rectal suppository. It acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to induce analgesia and alter perception and emotional response to pain. Physical and psychological dependence and tolerance may develop with repeated administration. It can be taken for both acute pain and chronic pain and is frequently used for pain from myocardial infarction, kidney stones, and during labor. Its maximum effect is reached after about 20 minutes when administered intravenously and 60 minutes when administered by mouth, while the duration of its effect is 3–7 hours. Long-acting formulations of morphine are sold under the brand names MS Contin and Kadian, among others. Generic long-acting formulations are also available.

Common side effects of morphine include drowsiness, euphoria, nausea, dizziness, sweating, and constipation. Potentially serious side effects of morphine include decreased respiratory effort, vomiting, and low blood pressure. Morphine is highly addictive and prone to abuse. If one's dose is reduced after long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms may occur. Caution is advised for the use of morphine during pregnancy or breastfeeding, as it may affect the health of the baby.

Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a sudden decrease in kidney function that develops within seven days, as shown by an increase in serum creatinine or a decrease in urine output, or both.

Causes of AKI are classified as either prerenal (due to decreased blood flow to the kidney), intrinsic renal (due to damage to the kidney itself), or postrenal (due to blockage of urine flow). Prerenal causes of AKI include sepsis, dehydration, excessive blood loss, cardiogenic shock, heart failure, cirrhosis, and certain medications like ACE inhibitors or NSAIDs. Intrinsic renal causes of AKI include glomerulonephritis, lupus nephritis, acute tubular necrosis, certain antibiotics, and chemotherapeutic agents. Postrenal causes of AKI include kidney stones, bladder cancer, neurogenic bladder, enlargement of the prostate, narrowing of the urethra, and certain medications like anticholinergics.

Gout (/ɡaʊt/ GOWT) is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of pain in a red, tender, hot, and swollen joint, caused by the deposition of needle-shaped crystals of the monosodium salt of uric acid. Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal intensity in less than 12 hours. In about half of cases, the joint at the base of the big toe is affected (Podagra). It may also result in tophi, kidney stones, or kidney damage.

Gout is due to persistently elevated levels of uric acid (urate) in the blood (hyperuricemia). This occurs from a combination of diet, other health problems, and genetic factors. At high levels, uric acid crystallizes and the crystals deposit in joints, tendons, and surrounding tissues, resulting in an attack of gout. Gout occurs more commonly in those who regularly drink beer or sugar-sweetened beverages; eat foods that are high in purines such as liver, shellfish, or anchovies; or are overweight. Diagnosis of gout may be confirmed by the presence of crystals in the joint fluid or in a deposit outside the joint. Blood uric acid levels may be normal during an attack.

A ureteroscopy is a medical examination of the upper urinary tract, usually performed with a ureteroscope that is passed through the urethra and the bladder, and then directly into the ureter. The procedure is useful in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders such as kidney stones and urothelial carcinoma of the upper urinary tract. Smaller stones in the bladder or lower ureter can be removed in one piece, while bigger ones are usually broken before removal during a ureteroscopy.

The examination may be performed with either a flexible, semi-rigid, or rigid device while the patient is under anesthesia. In specific cases, the patient is free to go home after the examination.

Renal colic (literally, kidney pain), also known as ureteric colic (literally, pain in the ureters), is characterized bysevere abdominal pain that is spasmodic in nature. This pain is primarily caused by an obstruction of one or both ureters from dislodged kidney stones. The most frequent site of obstruction is at the vesico-ureteric junction (VUJ), the narrowest point of the upper urinary tract. Acute (sudden onset) obstruction of a ureter can result in urinary stasis - the disruption or cessation of urine flow into the bladder. This, in turn, can cause distention of the ureter, known as a (hydroureter). The obstruction and distention of the ureter(s) results in reflexive peristaltic smooth muscle spasms or contractions, which then cause very intense and diffuse (widespread) visceral pain affecting the organs of the pelvis, abdomen and even the thoracic area. This intense, diffuse pain is transmitted via the ureteric plexus, a branching network of intersecting nerves that cover and innervate the ureters.

Lithotomy from Greek for "lithos" (stone) and "tomos" (cut), is a surgical method for removal of calculi, stones formed inside certain organs, such as the urinary tract (kidney stones), bladder (bladder stones), and gallbladder (gallstones), that cannot exit naturally through the urinary system or biliary tract. The procedure is usually performed by means of a surgical incision (therefore invasive). Lithotomy differs from lithotripsy, where the stones are crushed either by a minimally invasive probe inserted through the exit canal, or by an acoustic pulse (extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy), which is a non-invasive procedure. Because of these less invasive procedures, the use of lithotomy has decreased significantly in the modern era.