Islamic theology in the context of "Dawud al-Zahiri"

Adam (Arabic: آدم, romanized: ʾĀdam), in Islamic theology, is believed to have been the first human being on Earth and the first prophet (Arabic: نبي, nabī) of Islam. Adam's role as the father of the human race is looked upon by Muslims with reverence. Muslims also refer to his wife, Ḥawwāʾ (Arabic: حَوَّاء, Eve), as the "mother of mankind". Muslims see Adam as the first Muslim, as the Quran states that all the Prophets preached the same faith of Islam (Arabic: إسلام, lit. 'submission to God').

According to Islamic belief, Adam was created from the material of the earth and brought to life by God. God placed Adam in a paradisical Garden. After Adam sinned by eating from the forbidden tree (Tree of Immortality) after God forbade him from doing so, paradise was declined to him and he was sent down to live on Earth. The Qiṣaṣ al-Anbiyāʾ (Arabic: قصص الأنبياء, lit. 'Tales of the Prophets') adds that Adam and Ḥawwāʾ, when cast out of paradise, were cast down far apart and eventually met each other at Mount Arafat. Mankind would have learned planting, harvesting, baking, repenting from Adam.

In Islam, Jahannam (Arabic: جهنم) is the place of punishment for evildoers in the Akhirah / afterlife, or hell. This notion is an integral part of Islamic theology, and has occupied an important place in Muslim belief. The concept is often called by the proper name "Jahannam", but other names refer to hell and these are also often used as the names of different gates to hell. The term "Jahannam" itself is used not only for hell in general but (in one interpretation) for the uppermost layer of hell.

The importance of Hell in Islamic doctrine is that it is an essential element of the Day of Judgment, which is one of the six articles of faith (belief in God, the angels, books, prophets, Day of Resurrection, and decree) "by which the Muslim faith is traditionally defined".

Ibn Ṭufayl (c. 1105 – 1185) was an Arab Andalusian Muslim polymath: a writer, Islamic philosopher, Islamic theologian, physician, astronomer, and vizier. As a philosopher and novelist, he is most famous for writing the first philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan, considered a major work of Arabic literature emerging from Al-Andalus. As a physician, he was an early supporter of dissection and autopsy, which was expressed in his novel.

Iman (Arabic: إِيمَان, romanized: ʾīmān, lit. 'faith' or 'belief', also 'recognition') in Islamic theology denotes a believer's recognition of faith and deeds in the religious aspects of Islam. Its most simple definition is the belief in the six Pillars of faith, known as arkān al-īmān. Shiite theologians have proposed several theories regarding faith (or in its Arabic form, "Iman"). Some assert that faith consists of a single pillar: the belief held in the heart (the most inner and honest part of human being). Consequently, faith is defined as the affirmation of the heart, with verbal confession and actions playing no role in its actualization.

The term iman has been delineated in both the Quran and hadith. According to the Quran, iman must be accompanied by righteous deeds and the two together are necessary for entry into Paradise. According to the Quran, the seat of faith is the inner heart, the innermost part of human perception, while the seat of "Islam" is the intellect. In the hadith, iman in addition to Islam and ihsan form the three dimensions of the Islamic religion.

Atharism (Arabic: الأثرية, romanized: al-ʾAthariyya / al-aṯariyyah [æl ʔæθæˈrɪj.jæ], "of athar") is a school of theology in Sunni Islam which developed from circles of the Ahl al-Hadith, a group that rejected rationalistic theology in favor of strict textualism in interpreting the Quran and the hadith.

Adherents of Athari theology believe the zahir (apparent) meaning of the Quran and the hadith are the sole authorities in matters of aqida and Islamic jurisprudence; and that the use of rational disputation is forbidden, even if in verifying the truth. Atharis oppose the use of metaphorical interpretation regarding the anthropomorphic descriptions and attributes of God (ta'wil) and do not attempt to conceptualize the meanings of the Quran by using philosophical principles since they believe that their realities should be consigned to God and Muhammad alone (tafwid). In essence, they assert that the literal meaning of the Quran and the ḥadīth must be accepted without a "how" (i.e. "Bi-la kayfa").

The Hanbali school or Hanbalism is the smallest of the four major schools of Islamic jurisprudence within Sunni Islam. Named after and based on the teachings of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, the school belongs to the Ahl al-Hadith historical tradition.

Like the other Sunni schools, it primarily derives sharia from the Quran, hadith and views of Muhammad's companions. In cases where there is no clear answer in the sacred texts of Islam, the Hanbali school does not accept juristic discretion or customs of a community as sound bases to derive Islamic law on their own—methods that the Hanafi and Maliki schools accept. Most Hanbalis traditionally adhere to the Athari school of theology.

Islamic modernism is a movement that has been described as "the first Muslim ideological response to the Western cultural challenge", attempting to reconcile the Islamic faith with values perceived as modern such as democracy, civil rights, rationality, equality, and progress. It featured a "critical reexamination of the classical conceptions and methods of jurisprudence", and a new approach to Islamic theology and Quranic exegesis (Tafsir). A contemporary definition describes it as an "effort to re-read Islam's fundamental sources—the Qur'an and the Sunna, (the practice of the Prophet)—by placing them in their historical context, and then reassessing them in the light of the modern context."

It was one of several Islamic movements—including Islamic secularism, Islamism, and Salafism—that emerged in the middle of the 19th century in reaction to the rapid changes of the time, especially the perceived onslaught of Western civilization and colonialism on the Muslim world. Islamic modernism differs from secularism in that it insists on the importance of religious faith in public life, and from Salafism or Islamism in that it embraces contemporary European institutions, social processes, and values. One expression of Islamic modernism, formulated by Mahathir Mohamad, is that "only when Islam is interpreted so as to be relevant in a world which is different from what it was 1400 years ago, can Islam be regarded as a religion for all ages."

Quranism (Arabic: القرآنية, romanized: al-Qurʾāniyya) is an Islamic denomination that considers the Qur'an to be the only dependable religious text. Quranist Muslims believe that the Qur'an is clear and complete and can be fully understood without recourse to external sources.

Quranists are often divided into two main branches: those who believe the Qur'an is the primary source and consider external sources such as the Hadiths and Sunnah as secondary and dependent, and those who accept no texts other than the Qur'an and disregard tradition altogether. The extent to which Quranists reject the authenticity of the Sunnah varies, though the most established groups of Quranism have thoroughly criticised the Hadith, the most prevalent being the Quranist claim that the Hadith is not mentioned in the Qur'an as a source of Islamic theology or practise, was not recorded in written form until two centuries after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and contains perceived errors and contradictions. Quranists also believe that previous revelations of God have been altered, and that the Qur'an is the only book of God that has valid divine significance.

Tafsir (Arabic: تفسير, romanized: tafsīr [tafˈsiːr]; English: explanation) refers to an exegesis, or commentary, of the Quran. An author of a tafsir is a mufassir (Arabic: مُفسّر; plural: Arabic: مفسّرون, romanized: mufassirūn). A Quranic tafsir attempts to provide elucidation, explanation, interpretation, context or commentary for clear understanding and conviction of God's will in Islam. The idea of the interpretation of the Quran first appears in the Quran itself, commenting on cases where it is clear and others where it is ambiguous (3:7).

Principally, a tafsir deals with the issues of linguistics, jurisprudence, and theology. In terms of perspective and approach, tafsir can be broadly divided into two main categories, namely tafsir bi-al-ma'thur (lit. received tafsir), which is transmitted from the early days of Islam through the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his companions, and tafsir bi-al-ra'y (lit. tafsir by opinion), which is arrived through personal reflection or independent rational thinking.