Gandhara grave culture in the context of "Kunar Province"

The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) is the modern archaeological designation for a particular Middle Bronze Age civilisation of southern Central Asia, also known as the Oxus Civilization. The civilisation's urban phase or Integration Era was dated in 2010 by Sandro Salvatori to c. 2400–1950 BC, but a different view is held by Nadezhda A. Dubova and Bertille Lyonnet, c. 2250–1700 BC.

Though it may be called the "Oxus civilization", apparently centred on the upper Amu Darya (Oxus River) in Bactria, most of the BMAC's urban sites are located in Margiana (now Turkmenistan) on the Marghab delta, and in the Kopet Dagh range. There are a few later (c. 1950–1450 BC) sites in northern Bactria, today southern Uzbekistan, but they are mostly graveyards belonging to the BMAC-related Sapalli culture. A single BMAC site, known as Dashli, lies in southern Bactria, current territory of northern Afghanistan. Sites found further east, in southwestern Tajikistan, though contemporary with the main BMAC sites in Margiana, are only graveyards, with no urban developments associated with them.

The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC) is the modern archaeological designation for a particular Middle Bronze Age civilisation of southern Central Asia, also known as the Oxus Civilization. The civilisation's urban phase or Integration Era was dated in 2010 by Sandro Salvatori to c. 2400–1950 BC, but a different view is held by Nadezhda A. Dubova and Bertille Lyonnet, c. 2250–1700 BC.Although commonly referred to as the “Oxus civilization” and formally designated as the “Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex” (BMAC), recent studies have questioned the geographic adequacy of these terms. While the traditional labels emphasize the concentration of major urban sites in Margiana and northern Bactria, new archaeological surveys and excavations show that the cultural core of this Bronze Age complex was considerably broader. Significant sites have been documented across northeastern Iran, within the historical region of Greater Khorasan, including newly excavated settlements such as Tepe Chalow, Kalat-e Yavar, and Shahrak-e Firouzeh, along with numerous surveyed locations exhibiting characteristic BMAC material culture.On the basis of this wider distribution—extending from Sabzevar and Nishapur to the Murghab delta and Tajikistan—some scholars (e.g., Biscione & Vahdati) argue that “BMAC” and “Oxus Civilization” are overly restrictive, either overlooking formative areas or limiting the phenomenon to Bactria and Margiana.". Because the full spread of sites corresponds closely to the historical expanse of Greater Khorasan and reflects long-term cultural continuity into the Iron Age and later periods, these authors propose the broader term “Greater Khorasan Civilization” (GKC) for this archaeological complex.

There are a few later (c. 1950–1450 BC) sites in northern Bactria, today southern Uzbekistan, but they are mostly graveyards belonging to the BMAC-related Sapalli culture. A single BMAC site, known as Dashli, lies in southern Bactria, current territory of northern Afghanistan. Sites found further east, in southwestern Tajikistan, though contemporary with the main BMAC sites in Margiana, are only graveyards, with no urban developments associated with them.

The Cemetery H culture was a Bronze Age culture in the Punjab region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. It is regarded as a regional form of the late phase of the Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation (alongside the Jhukar culture of Sindh and Rangpur culture of Gujarat), but also as a phase of the Indo-Aryan migrations.

Mardān is a city in the Mardan District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Located in the Valley of Peshawar, Mardan is the second-largest city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (after Peshawar). It is a fast-growing city that experienced a population boom in the latter half of the 20th century.

Around 1800 BCE, the area around Mardan was part of the homeland of the Gandhara grave culture. Rock edicts of the ancient Indian King Ashoka in the nearby Shahbaz Garhi, written in the right-to-left Kharosthi script, dates from the Mauryan period (mid-200s BCE) and represent the earliest irrefutable evidence of writing in South Asia. The nearby Takht-i-Bahi which has remains of an ancient Buddhist monastery was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.