Darius II in the context of "Ezra–Nehemiah"

Arses or Arsaces (c. 445–359/8 BC), known by his regnal name Artaxerxes II (Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂 Artaxšaçāʰ; Ancient Greek: Ἀρταξέρξης), was King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 405/4 BC to 359/8 BC. He was the son and successor of Darius II (r. 423 – 405/4 BC) and his mother was Parysatis.

Soon after his accession, Artaxerxes II faced opposition from his younger brother Cyrus the Younger, who assembled an army composed of troops from his Lydian and Ionian satrapies as well as Greek mercenaries in his bid for the throne. The forces of the brothers clashed at Cunaxa in 401 BC, which resulted in the defeat and death of Cyrus. Following this, Artaxerxes II had to contend with several other revolts; a revolt by Evagoras I (r. 411–374 BC) in Cyprus between 391–380 BC, by the Phoenicians in c. 380 BC, and most importantly, the revolts by the western satraps (known as the Great Satraps' Revolt) in the 360s and 350s BC, led by distinguished figures such as Datames, Ariobarzanes, and Autophradates.

Cyrus the Younger (Old Persian: 𐎤𐎢𐎽𐎢𐏁 Kūruš; Ancient Greek: Κῦρος Kyros; died 401 BC) was an Achaemenid prince and general. He ruled as satrap of Lydia and Ionia from 408 to 401 BC. Son of Darius II and Parysatis, he died in 401 BC in battle during a failed attempt to oust his elder brother, Artaxerxes II, from the Persian throne.

The history of Cyrus and of the retreat of his Greek mercenaries is told by Xenophon in his Anabasis. Another account, probably from Sophaenetus of Stymphalus, was used by Ephorus. Further information is contained in the excerpts from Artaxerxes II's physician, Ctesias, by Photius; Plutarch’s Lives of Artaxerxes II and Lysander; and Thucydides' History of Peloponnesian War. These are the only early sources of information on Cyrus the Younger.

Parysatis (/pəˈrɪsətɪs/; Old Persian: Parušyātiš, Ancient Greek: Παρύσατις; 5th-century BC) was a Persian queen, consort of Darius II, who had a large influence during the reign of her son Artaxerxes II.

Hydarnes (Old Persian: 𐎻𐎡𐎭𐎼𐎴, romanized: Vidṛna), also known as Idernes, was a Persian nobleman, who was active during the reign of Darius II (r. 423 – 404 BC). He was a descendant (perhaps grandson) of Hydarnes the Younger, who was himself the son of Hydarnes, one of the seven Persian conspirators who overthrew the Pseudo-Smerdis. He was the father of several children through his principal consort. His offspring included Tissaphernes, Terituchmes, Stateira, Rhoxane, and two further daughters.

Johanan (Hebrew: יוֹחָנָן, romanized: Yoḥānān), son of Joiada, was the fifth High Priest of the Temple in Jerusalem after it was rebuilt after the end of the Babylonian captivity. His reign is estimated to have been from c. 410–371 BCE; he was succeeded by his son Jaddua. The Hebrew Bible gives no details about his life. Johanan lived in the province of Yehud Medinata in the Achaemenid Empire during the reigns of emperors Darius II (423–405 or 404 BCE) and his son Artaxerxes II (404–358 BCE).